sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  97        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  98        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  99        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 100        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 101        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 102        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 103        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 104        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 108        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 112            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 113        ),
 114        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 116        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 117        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 118        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 119        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 120        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 121        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 122        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 123        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 124        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 129        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 131        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 133            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 134        ),
 135        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 137        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 138        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 139        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 140        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 143        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 144        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 145        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 146        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 147        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 150        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 152        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 153        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 154        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 155        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 156        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 157        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 159        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 162    }
 163
 164    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 165    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 166    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 167
 168    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 169    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 170    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 171
 172    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 173    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 174
 175    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 176    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 177
 178    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 179    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 180
 181    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 182    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 183
 184    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 185    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 186
 187    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 188    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 189
 190    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 191    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 194    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 195
 196    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 197    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 198
 199    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 200    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 201
 202    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 203    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 204
 205    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 206    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 207
 208    # Whether join hints should be generated
 209    JOIN_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether table hints should be generated
 212    TABLE_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # Whether query hints should be generated
 215    QUERY_HINTS = True
 216
 217    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 218    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 219
 220    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 221    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 222
 223    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 224    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 225
 226    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 227    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 228
 229    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 230    RETURNING_END = True
 231
 232    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 233    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 234
 235    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 236    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 237
 238    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 239    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 240
 241    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 242    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 243
 244    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 245    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 246    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 247    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 248
 249    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 250    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 251
 252    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 253    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 254
 255    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 256    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 257
 258    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 259    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 260
 261    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 262    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 263
 264    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 265    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 266
 267    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 268    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 269
 270    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 272
 273    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 274    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 275
 276    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 277    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 278
 279    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 280    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 281
 282    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 283    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 284
 285    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 286    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 287
 288    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 289    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 290
 291    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 292    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 293
 294    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 295    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 296
 297    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 298    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 299
 300    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 301    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 302
 303    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 304    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 305
 306    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 307    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 308
 309    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 310    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 311
 312    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 313    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 314
 315    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 316    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 317
 318    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 319    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 320
 321    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 322    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 323
 324    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 325    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 326    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 327
 328    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 329    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 330
 331    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 333
 334    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 335    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 336
 337    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 338    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 339
 340    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 341    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 342
 343    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 344    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 345
 346    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 347    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 348    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 349    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 350
 351    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 352    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 353
 354    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 355    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 356
 357    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 358    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 359
 360    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 361    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 362
 363    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 364    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 365
 366    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 367    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 368
 369    # The HEX function name
 370    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 371
 372    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 373    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 374
 375    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 376    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 377
 378    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 379    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 380
 381    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 382    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 383
 384    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 385        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 388        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 389        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 390        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 391        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 392        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 395    }
 396
 397    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 398        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 399        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 400        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 401        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 402        "DAYS": "DAY",
 403        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 404        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 405        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 406        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 407    }
 408
 409    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 410        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 411        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 412        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 413        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 414            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 415            if e.args.get("windows")
 416            else ""
 417        ),
 418        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 419    }
 420
 421    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 422
 423    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 424
 425    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 426    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 427
 428    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 429        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 431        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 435        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 437        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 444        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 447        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 453        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 454        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 455        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 457        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 467        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 468        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 470        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 471        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 473        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 476        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 479        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 487        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 491        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 493        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 494        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 505        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 508        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511    }
 512
 513    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 514    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 515
 516    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 517    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 518        exp.Command,
 519        exp.Create,
 520        exp.Delete,
 521        exp.Drop,
 522        exp.From,
 523        exp.Insert,
 524        exp.Join,
 525        exp.Select,
 526        exp.SetOperation,
 527        exp.Update,
 528        exp.Where,
 529        exp.With,
 530    )
 531
 532    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 533    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 534        exp.Binary,
 535        exp.SetOperation,
 536    )
 537
 538    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 539    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 540        exp.Column,
 541        exp.Literal,
 542        exp.Neg,
 543        exp.Paren,
 544    )
 545
 546    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 547        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 548        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 549        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 550        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 551    }
 552
 553    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 554    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 555
 556    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 557
 558    __slots__ = (
 559        "pretty",
 560        "identify",
 561        "normalize",
 562        "pad",
 563        "_indent",
 564        "normalize_functions",
 565        "unsupported_level",
 566        "max_unsupported",
 567        "leading_comma",
 568        "max_text_width",
 569        "comments",
 570        "dialect",
 571        "unsupported_messages",
 572        "_escaped_quote_end",
 573        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 574        "_next_name",
 575    )
 576
 577    def __init__(
 578        self,
 579        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 580        identify: str | bool = False,
 581        normalize: bool = False,
 582        pad: int = 2,
 583        indent: int = 2,
 584        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 585        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 586        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 587        leading_comma: bool = False,
 588        max_text_width: int = 80,
 589        comments: bool = True,
 590        dialect: DialectType = None,
 591    ):
 592        import sqlglot
 593        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 594
 595        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 596        self.identify = identify
 597        self.normalize = normalize
 598        self.pad = pad
 599        self._indent = indent
 600        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 601        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 602        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 603        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 604        self.comments = comments
 605        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 606
 607        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 608        self.normalize_functions = (
 609            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 610        )
 611
 612        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 613        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 614            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 615        )
 616        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 617            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 618        )
 619
 620        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 621
 622    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 623        """
 624        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 625
 626        Args:
 627            expression: The syntax tree.
 628            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 629                it is safer to copy.
 630
 631        Returns:
 632            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 633        """
 634        if copy:
 635            expression = expression.copy()
 636
 637        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 638
 639        self.unsupported_messages = []
 640        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 641
 642        if self.pretty:
 643            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 644
 645        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 646            return sql
 647
 648        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 649            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 650                logger.warning(msg)
 651        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 652            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 653
 654        return sql
 655
 656    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 657        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 658        if (
 659            not expression.parent
 660            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 661            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 662        ):
 663            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 664
 665            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 666
 667        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 668            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 669
 670            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 671
 672        return expression
 673
 674    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 675        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 676            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 677        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 678
 679    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 680        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 681
 682    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 683        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 684
 685    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 686        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 687        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 688        return comment
 689
 690    def maybe_comment(
 691        self,
 692        sql: str,
 693        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 694        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 695        separated: bool = False,
 696    ) -> str:
 697        comments = (
 698            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 699            if self.comments
 700            else None
 701        )
 702
 703        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 704            return sql
 705
 706        comments_sql = " ".join(
 707            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 708        )
 709
 710        if not comments_sql:
 711            return sql
 712
 713        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 714
 715        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 716            return (
 717                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 718                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 719                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 720            )
 721
 722        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 723
 724    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 725        this_sql = (
 726            self.sql(expression)
 727            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 728            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 729        )
 730        if not this_sql:
 731            return "()"
 732
 733        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 734        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 735
 736    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 737        original = self.identify
 738        self.identify = False
 739        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 740        self.identify = original
 741        return result
 742
 743    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 744        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 745            return name.upper()
 746        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 747            return name.lower()
 748        return name
 749
 750    def indent(
 751        self,
 752        sql: str,
 753        level: int = 0,
 754        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 755        skip_first: bool = False,
 756        skip_last: bool = False,
 757    ) -> str:
 758        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 759            return sql
 760
 761        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 762        lines = sql.split("\n")
 763
 764        return "\n".join(
 765            (
 766                line
 767                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 768                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 769            )
 770            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 771        )
 772
 773    def sql(
 774        self,
 775        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 776        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 777        comment: bool = True,
 778    ) -> str:
 779        if not expression:
 780            return ""
 781
 782        if isinstance(expression, str):
 783            return expression
 784
 785        if key:
 786            value = expression.args.get(key)
 787            if value:
 788                return self.sql(value)
 789            return ""
 790
 791        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 792
 793        if callable(transform):
 794            sql = transform(self, expression)
 795        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 796            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 797
 798            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 799                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 800            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 801                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 802            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 803                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 804            else:
 805                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 806        else:
 807            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 808
 809        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 810
 811    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 812        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 813        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 814        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 815
 816    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 817        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 818        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 819        options = expression.args.get("options")
 820        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 821        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 822        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 823        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 824        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 825
 826    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 827        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 828            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 829        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 830        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 831
 832    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 833        return ".".join(
 834            self.sql(part)
 835            for part in (
 836                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 837                expression.args.get("db"),
 838                expression.args.get("table"),
 839                expression.args.get("this"),
 840            )
 841            if part
 842        )
 843
 844    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 845        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 846
 847        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 848            join_mark = ""
 849            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 850
 851        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 852
 853    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 855        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 856        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 857        return f"{position}{this}"
 858
 859    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 860        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 861        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 862        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 863        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 864        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 865        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 866        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 867        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 868
 869        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 870            kind = ""
 871
 872        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 873
 874    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 877        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 878
 879    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 882            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 883        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 884            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 885        else:
 886            persisted = ""
 887        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 888
 889    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 890        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 891
 892    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 893        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 894            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 895        else:
 896            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 897
 898        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 899
 900    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 901        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 902    ) -> str:
 903        this = ""
 904        if expression.this is not None:
 905            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 906            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 907
 908        start = expression.args.get("start")
 909        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 910        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 911        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 912        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 913        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 914        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 915        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 916        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 917        cycle_sql = ""
 918
 919        if cycle is not None:
 920            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 921            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 922
 923        sequence_opts = ""
 924        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 925            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 926            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 927
 928        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 929        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 930
 931        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 932
 933    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 934        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 935    ) -> str:
 936        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 937        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 938        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 939
 940    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 941        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 942    ) -> str:
 943        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 944
 945    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 946        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 947
 948    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 949        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 950
 951    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 952        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 953        if desc is not None:
 954            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 955        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 956
 957    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 960        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 961        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 962        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 963        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 964        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 965        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 966
 967    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 968        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 969
 970    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 971        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 972        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 973        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 974
 975        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 976
 977        properties_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 979            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 980        ):
 981            properties_sql = self.sql(
 982                exp.Properties(
 983                    expressions=[
 984                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 985                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 986                    ]
 987                )
 988            )
 989
 990            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 991                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 992            elif not self.pretty:
 993                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 994                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 995
 996        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 997        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 998
 999        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1000        if expression_sql:
1001            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1002
1003            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1004                postalias_props_sql = ""
1005                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1006                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1007                        exp.Properties(
1008                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1009                        ),
1010                        wrapped=False,
1011                    )
1012                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1013                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1014
1015        postindex_props_sql = ""
1016        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1017            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1018                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1019                wrapped=False,
1020                prefix=" ",
1021            )
1022
1023        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1024        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1025        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1026
1027        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1028        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1029
1030        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1031        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1032            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1033                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1034                sep=" ",
1035                prefix=" ",
1036                wrapped=False,
1037            )
1038
1039        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1040
1041        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1042        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1043            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1044                exp.Properties(
1045                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1046                ),
1047                sep=" ",
1048                prefix=" ",
1049                wrapped=False,
1050            )
1051
1052        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1053        no_schema_binding = (
1054            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1055        )
1056
1057        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1058        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1059
1060        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1061        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1062
1063    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1064        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1065        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1066        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1067        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1068        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1069        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1070        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1071        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1072        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1073        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1074
1075        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1076        if cache is None:
1077            cache_str = ""
1078        elif cache is True:
1079            cache_str = " CACHE"
1080        else:
1081            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1082
1083        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1084        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1085
1086        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1087
1088    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1091        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1092        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1093
1094    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1095        style = expression.args.get("style")
1096        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1097        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1098
1099    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1100        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1101        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1102
1103    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1104        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1105        if with_:
1106            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1107        return sql
1108
1109    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1110        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1111        recursive = (
1112            "RECURSIVE "
1113            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1114            else ""
1115        )
1116
1117        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1118
1119    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1120        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1121
1122        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1123        if materialized is False:
1124            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1125        elif materialized:
1126            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1127
1128        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1129
1130    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1131        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1132        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1133        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1134
1135        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1136            columns = ""
1137            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1138
1139        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1140            alias = self._next_name()
1141
1142        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1143
1144    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1147            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1148        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1149
1150    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1152        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1153            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1154        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1155
1156    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1157        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1159            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1160        return this
1161
1162    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1165
1166        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1167            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1168            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1169        else:
1170            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1171            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1172
1173        if escape:
1174            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1175            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1176        else:
1177            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1178            escape_sql = ""
1179
1180        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1181            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1182
1183        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1184
1185    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1186        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1187        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1188
1189    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1191        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1192        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1193        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1194
1195    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1196        type_value = expression.this
1197
1198        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1199            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1200        else:
1201            type_sql = (
1202                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1203                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1204                else type_value
1205            )
1206
1207        nested = ""
1208        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1209        values = ""
1210
1211        if interior:
1212            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1213                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1214                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1215                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1216                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1217                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1218            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1219                nested = f" {interior}"
1220            else:
1221                nested = f"({interior})"
1222
1223        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1224        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1225            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1226            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1227        ):
1228            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1229
1230        return type_sql
1231
1232    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1233        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1234        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1235        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1236        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1237
1238    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1241        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1242        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1243        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1244        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1245        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1246        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1247        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1248        if self.RETURNING_END:
1249            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1250        else:
1251            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1252        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1253
1254    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1257        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1258        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1259        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1260        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1261        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1262        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1263        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1264        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1265        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1266        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1267        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1268
1269    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1270        return self.set_operations(expression)
1271
1272    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1273        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1274
1275    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1276        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1277        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1278        count = expression.args.get("count")
1279        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1280        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1281            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1282        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1283        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1284
1285    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1286        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1287            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1288            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1289            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1290
1291        agg = expression.this
1292        agg_arg = agg.this
1293        cond = expression.expression.this
1294        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1295        return self.sql(agg)
1296
1297    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1298        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1299            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1300            return ""
1301
1302        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1303
1304    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1305        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1306        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1307        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1308        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1309        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1310        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1311        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1312        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1313        if include:
1314            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1315        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1316        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1317        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1318        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1319        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1320        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1321
1322        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1323
1324    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1325        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1326        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1327        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1328        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1329        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1330        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1331        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1332
1333        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1334
1335        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1336        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1337
1338    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1339        text = expression.name
1340        lower = text.lower()
1341        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1342        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1343        if (
1344            expression.quoted
1345            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1346            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1347            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1348        ):
1349            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1350        return text
1351
1352    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1353        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1354        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1355            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1356
1357        return text
1358
1359    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1360        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1361        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1362            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1363        return text
1364
1365    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1366        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1367        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1368        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1369        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1370        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1371
1372    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1373        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1374        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1375
1376    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1377        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1378
1379    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1380        root_properties = []
1381        with_properties = []
1382
1383        for p in expression.expressions:
1384            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1385            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1386                with_properties.append(p)
1387            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1388                root_properties.append(p)
1389
1390        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1391        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1392
1393        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1394            with_props = " " + with_props
1395
1396        return root_props + with_props
1397
1398    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1399        if properties.expressions:
1400            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1401        return ""
1402
1403    def properties(
1404        self,
1405        properties: exp.Properties,
1406        prefix: str = "",
1407        sep: str = ", ",
1408        suffix: str = "",
1409        wrapped: bool = True,
1410    ) -> str:
1411        if properties.expressions:
1412            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1413            if expressions:
1414                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1415                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1416        return ""
1417
1418    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1419        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1420
1421    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1422        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1423        for p in properties.expressions:
1424            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1425            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1426                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1427            else:
1428                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1429
1430        return properties_locs
1431
1432    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1433        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1434            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1435        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1436
1437    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1438        property_cls = expression.__class__
1439        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1440            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1441
1442        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1443        if not property_name:
1444            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1445
1446        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1447
1448    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1449        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1450            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1451            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1452
1453            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1454            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1455                like = f"({like})"
1456
1457            return like
1458
1459        if expression.expressions:
1460            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1461
1462        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1463        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1464
1465    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1466        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1467        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1468        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1469
1470    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1471        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1472        local = expression.args.get("local")
1473        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1474        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1475        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1476        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1477        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1478
1479    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1480        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1481        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1482        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1483
1484    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1485        if expression.args.get("default"):
1486            property = "DEFAULT"
1487        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1488            property = "ON"
1489        else:
1490            property = "OFF"
1491        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1492
1493    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1494        if expression.args.get("no"):
1495            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1496        if expression.args.get("default"):
1497            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1498
1499        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1500        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1501
1502    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1503        default = expression.args.get("default")
1504        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1505        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1506        if default or minimum or maximum:
1507            if default:
1508                prop = "DEFAULT"
1509            elif minimum:
1510                prop = "MINIMUM"
1511            else:
1512                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1513            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1514        units = expression.args.get("units")
1515        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1516        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1517
1518    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1519        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1520        always = expression.args.get("always")
1521        default = expression.args.get("default")
1522        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1523        never = expression.args.get("never")
1524
1525        if autotemp is not None:
1526            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1527        elif always:
1528            prop = "ALWAYS"
1529        elif default:
1530            prop = "DEFAULT"
1531        elif manual:
1532            prop = "MANUAL"
1533        elif never:
1534            prop = "NEVER"
1535        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1536
1537    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1538        no = expression.args.get("no")
1539        no = " NO" if no else ""
1540        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1541        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1542        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1543        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1544        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1545
1546    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1547        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1548            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1549        if expression.this:
1550            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1551            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1552            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1553
1554        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1555        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1556        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1557
1558    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1560
1561        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1562        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1563            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1564        else:
1565            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1566
1567        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1568
1569    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1570        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1571        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1572        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1573        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1574        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1575        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1576        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1577
1578    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1579        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1580        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1581        statistics_sql = ""
1582        if statistics is not None:
1583            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1584        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1585
1586    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1588        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1589        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1590        data_consistency = (
1591            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1592        )
1593        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1594        retention_period = (
1595            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1596        )
1597
1598        if this:
1599            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1600        else:
1601            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1602
1603        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1604
1605        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1606
1607    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1608        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1609        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1610
1611        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1612            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1613        else:
1614            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1615
1616        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1617        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1618        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1619        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1620        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1621        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1622        if is_function:
1623            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1624        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1625
1626        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1627        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1628        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1629        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1630        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1631        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1632        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1633        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1634
1635        if self.RETURNING_END:
1636            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1637        else:
1638            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1639
1640        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1641        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1642
1643    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1644        return self.set_operations(expression)
1645
1646    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1647        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1648
1649    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1650        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1651
1652    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1653        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1654        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1656        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1657        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1658
1659    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1660        return expression.name
1661
1662    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1663        return expression.name
1664
1665    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1666        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1667
1668        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1669        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1670
1671        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1672        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1673        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1674
1675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1676        if expressions:
1677            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1678            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1679
1680        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1681
1682    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1683        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1684
1685    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1686        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1687        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1688        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1689        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1690        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1691        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1692        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1693        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1694        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1695        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1696        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1697        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1698        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1699
1700    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1701        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1702
1703    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1704        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1705        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1706        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1707        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1708
1709    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1712        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1713        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1714
1715    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1716        return ".".join(
1717            self.sql(part)
1718            for part in (
1719                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1720                expression.args.get("db"),
1721                expression.args.get("this"),
1722            )
1723            if part is not None
1724        )
1725
1726    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1727        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1728        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1729        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1730        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1731        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1732        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1733        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1734        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1735        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1736        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1737        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1738        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1739        joins = self.indent(
1740            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1741        )
1742        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1743
1744        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1745        if file_format:
1746            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1747            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1748            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1749
1750        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1751        if ordinality:
1752            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1753            alias = ""
1754
1755        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1756        if when:
1757            table = f"{table} {when}"
1758
1759        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1760        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1761
1762        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1763        if rows_from:
1764            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1765
1766        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1767
1768    def tablesample_sql(
1769        self,
1770        expression: exp.TableSample,
1771        sep: str = " AS ",
1772        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1773    ) -> str:
1774        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1775            table = expression.this.copy()
1776            table.set("alias", None)
1777            this = self.sql(table)
1778            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1779        else:
1780            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1781            alias = ""
1782
1783        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1784        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1785        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1786        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1787        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1788        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1789        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1790        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1791        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1792
1793        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1794        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1795            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1796
1797        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1798        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1799            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1800
1801        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1802        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1803            expr = f"({expr})"
1804
1805        return (
1806            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1807        )
1808
1809    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1810        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1811
1812        if expression.this:
1813            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1814            if not expressions:
1815                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1816
1817            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1818            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1819            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1820            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1821            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1822
1823        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1824        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1825        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1826        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1827        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1828        if include_nulls is not None:
1829            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1830        else:
1831            nulls = ""
1832        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1833
1834    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1835        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1836        kind = expression.text("kind")
1837        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1838        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1839
1840    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1841        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1842
1843    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1845        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1846        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1847        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1848        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1849        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1850        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1851        if self.RETURNING_END:
1852            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1853        else:
1854            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1855        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1856        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1857
1858    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1859        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1860
1861        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1862        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1863            args = self.expressions(expression)
1864            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1865            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1866            values = (
1867                f"({values})"
1868                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1869                else values
1870            )
1871            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1872
1873        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1874        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1875        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1876
1877        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1878
1879        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1880            row = tup.expressions
1881
1882            if i == 0 and column_names:
1883                row = [
1884                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1885                ]
1886
1887            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1888
1889        if self.pretty:
1890            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1891            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1892            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1893            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1894            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1895
1896        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1897        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1898        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1899
1900    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1901        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1902
1903    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1904        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1905        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1906        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1907
1908    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1909        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1910
1911    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1912        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1913        if group_by_all is True:
1914            modifier = " ALL"
1915        elif group_by_all is False:
1916            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1917        else:
1918            modifier = ""
1919
1920        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1921
1922        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1923        grouping_sets = (
1924            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1925        )
1926
1927        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1928        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1929            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1930        else:
1931            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1932            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1933
1934        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1935        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1936            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1937        else:
1938            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1939            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1940
1941        groupings = csv(
1942            grouping_sets,
1943            cube_sql,
1944            rollup_sql,
1945            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1946            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1947        )
1948
1949        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1950            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1951
1952        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1953
1954    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1955        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1956        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1957
1958    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1959        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1960        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1961        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1962        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1963        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1964        return start + connect
1965
1966    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1967        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1968
1969    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1970        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1971            side = None
1972        else:
1973            side = expression.side
1974
1975        op_sql = " ".join(
1976            op
1977            for op in (
1978                expression.method,
1979                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1980                side,
1981                expression.kind,
1982                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1983            )
1984            if op
1985        )
1986        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1987        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1988        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1989        using = expression.args.get("using")
1990
1991        if not on_sql and using:
1992            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1993
1994        this = expression.this
1995        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1996
1997        if on_sql:
1998            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1999            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2000            if using:
2001                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2002            else:
2003                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2004        elif not op_sql:
2005            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2006                return f" {this_sql}"
2007
2008            return f", {this_sql}"
2009
2010        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2011            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2012
2013        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2014
2015    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2016        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2017        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2018        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2019
2020    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2021        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2022
2023        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2024        if cross_apply is True:
2025            op = "INNER JOIN "
2026        elif cross_apply is False:
2027            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2028        else:
2029            op = ""
2030
2031        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2032
2033    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2035
2036        if expression.args.get("view"):
2037            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2038            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2039            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2040            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2041            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2042            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2043
2044        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2045        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2046        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2047
2048    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2050
2051        args = [
2052            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2053            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2054            if e
2055        ]
2056
2057        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2058        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2059        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2060        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2061
2062        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2063
2064    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        value = expression.expression
2067        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2068        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2069        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2070        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2071
2072    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2073        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2074        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2075        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2076        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2077        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2078        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2079        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2080        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2081
2082    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2083        expressions = (
2084            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2085        )
2086        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2087        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2088
2089    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2090        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2091
2092    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2093        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2094            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2095            return ""
2096
2097        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2098        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2099        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2100        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2101
2102        if wait is not None:
2103            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2104                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2105            else:
2106                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2107
2108        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2109
2110    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2111        text = expression.this or ""
2112        if expression.is_string:
2113            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2114        return text
2115
2116    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2117        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2118            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2119            text = "".join(
2120                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2121            )
2122
2123        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2124            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2125        )
2126
2127    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2128        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2129        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2130        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2131        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2132        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2133        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2134        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2135        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2136        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2137        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2138        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2139
2140    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2141        return "NULL"
2142
2143    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2144        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2145
2146    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2148        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2149        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2150        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2151        interpolated_values = [
2152            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2153            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2154        ]
2155        interpolate = (
2156            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2157        )
2158        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2159
2160    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2161        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2162        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2163        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2164        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2165        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2166        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2167        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2168
2169    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2170        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2171
2172    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2173        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2174
2175    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2176        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2177
2178    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2179        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2180        asc = not desc
2181
2182        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2183        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2184        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2185        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2186        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2187
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189
2190        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2191        nulls_sort_change = ""
2192        if nulls_first and (
2193            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2194        ):
2195            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2196        elif (
2197            nulls_last
2198            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2199            and not nulls_are_last
2200        ):
2201            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2202
2203        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2204        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2205            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2206            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2207                self.unsupported(
2208                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2209                )
2210                nulls_sort_change = ""
2211            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2212                if expression.this.is_int:
2213                    self.unsupported(
2214                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2215                    )
2216                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2217                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2218                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2219                nulls_sort_change = ""
2220
2221        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2222        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2223
2224        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2225
2226    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2227        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2228        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2229
2230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2231
2232        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2233
2234    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2235        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2236        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2237        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2238        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2239        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2240        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2241        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2242        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2243        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2244        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2245        definition_sqls = [
2246            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2247            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2248        ]
2249        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2250        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2251        body = "".join(
2252            (
2253                partition,
2254                order,
2255                measures,
2256                rows,
2257                after,
2258                pattern,
2259                define,
2260            )
2261        )
2262        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2263        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2264        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2265
2266    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2267        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2268
2269        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2270            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2271        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2272            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2273
2274        return csv(
2275            *sqls,
2276            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2277            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2278            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2279            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2280            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2281            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2282            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2283            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2284            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2285            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2286            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2287            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2288            self.options_modifier(expression),
2289            sep="",
2290        )
2291
2292    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2293        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2294        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2295
2296    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2297        return ""
2298
2299    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2300        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2301    ) -> t.List[str]:
2302        return [
2303            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2304            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2305        ]
2306
2307    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2308        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2309        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2310        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2311
2312    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2313        into = expression.args.get("into")
2314        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2315            into.pop()
2316
2317        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2318        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2319        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2320        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2321
2322        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2323        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2324            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2325            limit.pop()
2326        else:
2327            top = ""
2328
2329        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2330
2331        if kind:
2332            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2333                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2334            else:
2335                if kind == "STRUCT":
2336                    expressions = self.expressions(
2337                        sqls=[
2338                            self.sql(
2339                                exp.Struct(
2340                                    expressions=[
2341                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2342                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2343                                        else e
2344                                        for e in expression.expressions
2345                                    ]
2346                                )
2347                            )
2348                        ]
2349                    )
2350                kind = ""
2351
2352        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2353        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2354        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2355        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2356        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2357            expression,
2358            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2359            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2360            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2361        )
2362
2363        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2364
2365        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2366            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2367                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2368            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2369                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2370            else:
2371                table_kind = ""
2372            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2373
2374        return sql
2375
2376    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2378        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2379        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2380
2381    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2382        if expression.expressions:
2383            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2384        return ""
2385
2386    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2387        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2388        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2389        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2390        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2391        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2392        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2393        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2394
2395    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2397        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2398
2399    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2401        kind = expression.text("kind")
2402        if kind:
2403            kind = f"{kind}."
2404        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2405
2406    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2407        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2408
2409    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2410        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2411        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2412
2413        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2414        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2415
2416        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2417        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2418
2419    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2420        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2421        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2422
2423    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2424        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2425            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2426            order = expression.args.get("order")
2427
2428            if limit or order:
2429                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2430
2431                if limit:
2432                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2433                if order:
2434                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2435                return self.sql(select)
2436
2437        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2438        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2439
2440        while stack:
2441            node = stack.pop()
2442
2443            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2444                stack.append(node.expression)
2445                stack.append(
2446                    self.maybe_comment(
2447                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2448                        comments=node.comments,
2449                        separated=True,
2450                    )
2451                )
2452                stack.append(node.this)
2453            else:
2454                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2455
2456        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2457        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2458        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2459
2460    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2461        return self.set_operations(expression)
2462
2463    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2464        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2465        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2466        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2467        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2468
2469    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2470        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2471
2472        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2473        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2474
2475        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2476            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2477                alias.append("columns", offset)
2478
2479        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2480            columns = alias.columns
2481            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2482        else:
2483            alias = self.sql(alias)
2484
2485        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2486        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2487            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2488        else:
2489            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2490                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2491            elif offset:
2492                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2493            else:
2494                suffix = alias
2495
2496        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2497
2498    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2499        return ""
2500
2501    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2502        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2503        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2504
2505    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2507        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2508        order = expression.args.get("order")
2509        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2510        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2511        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2512        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2513
2514        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2515
2516        first = expression.args.get("first")
2517        if first is None:
2518            first = ""
2519        else:
2520            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2521
2522        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2523            return f"{this} {alias}"
2524
2525        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2526        return f"{this} ({args})"
2527
2528    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2529        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2530        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2531
2532    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2533        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2534        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2535        end = (
2536            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2537            or "CURRENT ROW"
2538        )
2539        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2540
2541    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2543        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2544        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2545
2546    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2548        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2549        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2550        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2551
2552    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2553        return apply_index_offset(
2554            expression.this,
2555            expression.expressions,
2556            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2557        )
2558
2559    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2560        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2561        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2562        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2563
2564    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2565        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2566
2567    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2569        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2570            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2571                this = self.wrap(this)
2572            return f"ANY{this}"
2573        return f"ANY {this}"
2574
2575    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2576        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2577
2578    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2581
2582        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2583            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2584            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2585
2586        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2587
2588        if default:
2589            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2590
2591        statements.append("END")
2592
2593        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2594            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2595
2596        return " ".join(statements)
2597
2598    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2601        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2602
2603    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2604        order = expression.args.get("order")
2605        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2606        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2607
2608    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2609        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2610        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2611        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2612
2613    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2614        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2615
2616        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2617            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2618        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2619            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2620        else:
2621            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2622
2623    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2624        args = expression.expressions
2625        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2626            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2627
2628        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2629            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2630
2631        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2632            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2633
2634        return args
2635
2636    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2637        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2638
2639        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2640        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2641            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2642
2643        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2644
2645    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2646        return self.func(
2647            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2648        )
2649
2650    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2651        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2652        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2653
2654    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2655        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2656        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2657        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2658        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2659        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2660        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2661        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2662        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2663
2664    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2665        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2666        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2667        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2668        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2669
2670    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2671        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2672
2673    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2674        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2675        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2676        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2677
2678    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2679        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2680
2681    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2682        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2683        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2684            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2685
2686        return path
2687
2688    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2689        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2690            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2691            if not callable(transform):
2692                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2693                return ""
2694
2695            return transform(self, expression)
2696
2697        if isinstance(expression, int):
2698            return str(expression)
2699
2700        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2701            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2702            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2703        else:
2704            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2705            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2706
2707        return escaped
2708
2709    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2710        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2711
2712    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2713        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2714        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2715
2716        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2717        if unique_keys is not None:
2718            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2719        else:
2720            unique_keys = ""
2721
2722        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2723        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2724        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2725        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2726
2727        return self.func(
2728            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2729            *expression.expressions,
2730            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2731        )
2732
2733    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2734        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2735
2736    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2737        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2738        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2739        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2740        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2741        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2742        return self.func(
2743            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2744        )
2745
2746    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2748        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2749        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2750        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2751        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2752        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2753        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2754        return self.func(
2755            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2756            this,
2757            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2758        )
2759
2760    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2761        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2762        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2763        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2764
2765        if nested_schema:
2766            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2767
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2770        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2771        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2772
2773    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2774        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2775
2776    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2778        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2779        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2780        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2781        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2782        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2783        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2784        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2785        return self.func(
2786            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2787        )
2788
2789    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2791        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2792        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2793        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2794        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2795        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2796
2797    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2799        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2800        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2801        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2802        with_ = (
2803            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2804            if expressions
2805            else ""
2806        )
2807        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2808
2809    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2810        query = expression.args.get("query")
2811        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2812        field = expression.args.get("field")
2813        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2814
2815        if query:
2816            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2817        elif unnest:
2818            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2819        elif field:
2820            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2821        else:
2822            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2823
2824        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2825
2826    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2827        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2828
2829    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2830        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2831        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2832            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2833        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2834
2835        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2836            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2837            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2838
2839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2840        if this:
2841            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2842            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2843
2844        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2845
2846    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2847        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2848
2849    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2850        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2851        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2852        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2853        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2854        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2855        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2856
2857    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2858        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2859
2860    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2861        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2862        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2863
2864    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2865        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2866        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2867        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2868        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2869
2870    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2871        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2872
2873    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2874        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2875        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2877
2878    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2879        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2880        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2881
2882        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2883            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2884        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2885            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2886
2887        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2888
2889    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2890        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2891
2892    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2894        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2895        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2896
2897    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2899        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2900        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2901
2902    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2904        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2905        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2906
2907    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2908        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2909
2910    def and_sql(
2911        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2912    ) -> str:
2913        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2914
2915    def or_sql(
2916        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2917    ) -> str:
2918        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2919
2920    def xor_sql(
2921        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2922    ) -> str:
2923        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2924
2925    def connector_sql(
2926        self,
2927        expression: exp.Connector,
2928        op: str,
2929        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2930    ) -> str:
2931        if stack is not None:
2932            if expression.expressions:
2933                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2934            else:
2935                stack.append(expression.right)
2936                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2937                    for comment in expression.comments:
2938                        if comment:
2939                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2940                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2941            return op
2942
2943        stack = [expression]
2944        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2945        ops = set()
2946
2947        while stack:
2948            node = stack.pop()
2949            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2950                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2951            else:
2952                sql = self.sql(node)
2953                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2954                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2955                else:
2956                    sqls.append(sql)
2957
2958        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2959        return sep.join(sqls)
2960
2961    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2962        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2963
2964    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2965        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2966
2967    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2968        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2969
2970    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2971        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2972
2973    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2974        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2975
2976    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2977        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2978
2979    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2980        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2981        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2982        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2983        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2984        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2985        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2986        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2987
2988    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2989        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2991
2992    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2993        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2994
2995    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2996        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2997            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2998        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2999
3000    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3001        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3002
3003    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3005        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3006        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3007        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3008        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3009        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3010
3011    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3013        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3014        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3015        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3016        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3017        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3018        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3019        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3020        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3021
3022    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3023        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3024        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3025        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3026        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3027
3028        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3029            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3030
3031        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3032
3033    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3034        return "BEGIN"
3035
3036    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3037        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3038        if chain is not None:
3039            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3040
3041        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3042
3043    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3044        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3045        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3046        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3047
3048    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3050
3051        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3052        if dtype:
3053            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3054            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3055            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3056            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3057            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3058
3059        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3060        if default:
3061            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3062
3063        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3064        if comment:
3065            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3066
3067        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3068        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3069
3070        if not drop and not allow_null:
3071            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3072
3073        if allow_null is not None:
3074            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3075            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3076
3077        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3078
3079    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3081        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3082            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3083        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3084
3085    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3086        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3088        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3089        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3090        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3091
3092    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3093        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3094            # Remove db from tables
3095            expression = expression.transform(
3096                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3097            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3100
3101    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3102        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3103        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3104        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3105        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3106
3107    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3108        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3109        return f"SET {exprs}"
3110
3111    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3112        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3113
3114        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3115            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3116        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3117            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3118        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3119            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3120        else:
3121            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3122
3123        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3124        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3125        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3126        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3127        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3128        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3129        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3130
3131    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3132        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3133            return self.expressions(
3134                expression,
3135                key="actions",
3136                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3137            )
3138        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3139
3140    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3141        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3142        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3143        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3144
3145    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3146        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3147
3148    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3149        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3150
3151        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3152            case = exp.case()
3153            for arg in expression.expressions:
3154                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3155            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3156
3157        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3158
3159        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3160        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3161        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3162
3163    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3164        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3165
3166    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3167        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3168
3169    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3170        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3171        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3172        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3173        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3174
3175    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3176        return self.sql(
3177            exp.Cast(
3178                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3179                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3180            )
3181        )
3182
3183    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3184        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3185            return self.func(
3186                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3187            )
3188        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3189
3190    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3191        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3192
3193        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3194            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3195
3196        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3197            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3198                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3199
3200        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3201            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3202                return self.sql(
3203                    exp.cast(
3204                        l / r,
3205                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3206                    )
3207                )
3208
3209        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3210
3211    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3212        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3213
3214    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3215        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3216
3217    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3218        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3219
3220    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3221        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3222
3223    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3224        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3225
3226    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3227        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3228
3229    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3230        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3231
3232    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3233        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3234
3235    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3236        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3237
3238    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3240
3241    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3243
3244    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3245        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3246            return self.sql(
3247                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3248            )
3249        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3250
3251    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3253
3254    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3256
3257    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3259
3260    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3262
3263    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3265
3266    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3268
3269    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3271
3272    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3274
3275    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3277
3278    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3279        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3280
3281    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3282        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3283
3284    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3285        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3286
3287    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3288        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3289
3290    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3291        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3292            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3293            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3294
3295        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3296
3297    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3298        this = expression.this
3299        expr = expression.expression
3300
3301        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3302            this, expr = expr, this
3303        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3304            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3305                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3306
3307            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3308
3309        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3310
3311    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3312        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3313        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3315        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3316        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3317
3318    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3319        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3320        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3321
3322    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3323        args = []
3324
3325        for key in expression.arg_types:
3326            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3327
3328            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3329                for value in arg_value:
3330                    args.append(value)
3331            elif arg_value is not None:
3332                args.append(arg_value)
3333
3334        if self.normalize_functions:
3335            name = expression.sql_name()
3336        else:
3337            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3338
3339        return self.func(name, *args)
3340
3341    def func(
3342        self,
3343        name: str,
3344        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3345        prefix: str = "(",
3346        suffix: str = ")",
3347    ) -> str:
3348        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3349
3350    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3351        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3352        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3353            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3354        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3355
3356    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3357        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3358
3359    def format_time(
3360        self,
3361        expression: exp.Expression,
3362        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3363        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3364    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3365        return format_time(
3366            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3367            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3368            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3369        )
3370
3371    def expressions(
3372        self,
3373        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3374        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3375        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3376        flat: bool = False,
3377        indent: bool = True,
3378        skip_first: bool = False,
3379        skip_last: bool = False,
3380        sep: str = ", ",
3381        prefix: str = "",
3382        dynamic: bool = False,
3383        new_line: bool = False,
3384    ) -> str:
3385        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3386
3387        if not expressions:
3388            return ""
3389
3390        if flat:
3391            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3392
3393        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3394
3395        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3396        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3397            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3398
3399        result_sqls = []
3400        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3401            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3402            if not sql:
3403                continue
3404
3405            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3406
3407            if self.pretty:
3408                if self.leading_comma:
3409                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3410                else:
3411                    result_sqls.append(
3412                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3413                    )
3414            else:
3415                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3416
3417        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3418            if new_line:
3419                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3420                result_sqls.append("")
3421            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3422        else:
3423            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3424        return (
3425            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3426            if indent
3427            else result_sql
3428        )
3429
3430    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3431        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3432        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3433        if flat:
3434            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3435        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3436
3437    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3438        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3439        if not property_name:
3440            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3441        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3442
3443    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3444        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3445
3446    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3447        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3448
3449    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3450        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3451        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3452        expressions = (
3453            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3454        )
3455        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3456
3457    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3459        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3460        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3461
3462    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3463        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3464
3465    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3466        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3467        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3468        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3469        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3470
3471        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3472        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3473            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3474            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3475            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3476            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3477        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3478            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3479                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3480            else:
3481                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3482        else:
3483            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3484        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3485
3486    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3487        table = expression.this
3488        table_alias = ""
3489
3490        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3491        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3492            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3493            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3494
3495        this = self.sql(table)
3496        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3497        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3498        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3499        sep = self.sep()
3500
3501        return self.prepend_ctes(
3502            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3503        )
3504
3505    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3506        if expression.args.get("format"):
3507            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3508
3509        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3510
3511    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3512        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3513            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3514            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3515
3516        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3517        if not fmt:
3518            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3519            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3520
3521        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3522
3523    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3525        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3526        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3527        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3528        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3529
3530    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3532        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3533        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3534        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3535
3536    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3537        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3538
3539    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3540        return ""
3541
3542    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3543        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3544        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3545        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3546        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3547        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3548
3549    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3551        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3552
3553        if having:
3554            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3555
3556        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3557
3558    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3559        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3560        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3561        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3562        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3563        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3564        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3565        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3566        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3567        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3568        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3569        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3570        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3571        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3572
3573    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3574        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3575        if key_block_size:
3576            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3577
3578        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3579        if using:
3580            return f"USING {using}"
3581
3582        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3583        if parser:
3584            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3585
3586        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3587        if comment:
3588            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3589
3590        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3591        if visible is not None:
3592            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3593
3594        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3595        if engine_attr:
3596            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3597
3598        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3599        if secondary_engine_attr:
3600            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3601
3602        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3603        return ""
3604
3605    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3606        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3607        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3608
3609    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3610        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3611        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3613        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3614        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3615        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3616        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3617        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3618        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3619        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3620        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3621
3622    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3623        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3624            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3625
3626        case = exp.Case().when(
3627            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3628            expression.args["true"],
3629            copy=False,
3630        )
3631        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3632        if else_cond:
3633            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3634
3635        return self.sql(case)
3636
3637    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3640        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3641        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3642        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3643        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3644
3645    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3646        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3647
3648    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3649        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3650
3651    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3652        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3653        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3654        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3655        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3656        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3657        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3658
3659    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3661        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3662        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3663
3664    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3666        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3667        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3668
3669    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3670        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3671
3672    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3673        arg = expression.this
3674        if not arg.type:
3675            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3676
3677            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3678
3679        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3680            return self.sql(arg)
3681
3682        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3683        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3684
3685    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3686        this = expression.this
3687        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3688            return self.sql(this)
3689
3690        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3691
3692    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3693        this = expression.this
3694        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3695            return self.sql(this)
3696
3697        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3698
3699    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3700        this = expression.this
3701        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3702
3703        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3704            return self.sql(
3705                exp.cast(
3706                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3707                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3708                )
3709            )
3710
3711        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3712            return self.sql(this)
3713
3714        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3715
3716    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3717        return self.sql(
3718            exp.func(
3719                "DATEDIFF",
3720                expression.this,
3721                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3722                "day",
3723            )
3724        )
3725
3726    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3727        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3728            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3729
3730        unit = expression.text("unit")
3731        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3732            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3733
3734        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3735
3736    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3737        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3738
3739        return self.func(
3740            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3741        )
3742
3743    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3744        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3745            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3746            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3747            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3748            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3749
3750        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3751
3752        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3753        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3754            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3755
3756        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3757
3758    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3759        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3760        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3761
3762    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3763        expression.set(
3764            "expressions",
3765            [
3766                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3767                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3768                else e
3769                for e in expression.expressions
3770            ],
3771        )
3772
3773        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3774
3775    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3776        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3777        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3778
3779        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3780
3781    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3782        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3783        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3784
3785        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3786
3787        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3788        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3789
3790        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3791        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3792
3793        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3794        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3795
3796        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3797        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3798
3799        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3800
3801    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3802    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3803    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3804        to = expression.this
3805        value = expression.expression
3806        style = expression.args.get("style")
3807        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3808        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3809
3810        if not to or not value:
3811            return ""
3812
3813        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3814        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3815            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3816
3817        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3818        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3819
3820        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3821        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3822            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3823
3824            style_value = style.name
3825            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3826            if not converted_style:
3827                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3828
3829            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3830
3831            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3832                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3833            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3834                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3835            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3836                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3837            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3838                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3839
3840        if not transformed:
3841            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3842
3843        return self.sql(transformed)
3844
3845    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3846        this = expression.this
3847        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3848            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3849            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3850
3851        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3852            return f".{this}"
3853
3854        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3855        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3856
3857    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3858        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3859        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3860
3861    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3862        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3863            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3864
3865            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3866
3867        return expression
3868
3869    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3870        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3871            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3872            mods = sorted(
3873                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3874                key=lambda x: 0
3875                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3876                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3877            )
3878
3879            if mods:
3880                mod = mods[0]
3881                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3882                this.meta["inline"] = True
3883                mod.this.replace(this)
3884                return self.sql(expression.this)
3885
3886            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3887
3888            if agg_func:
3889                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3890
3891        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3892
3893    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3894        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3895        if self.pretty:
3896            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3897        return string
3898
3899    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3900        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3901
3902        if expression.expressions:
3903            upper = option.upper()
3904
3905            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3906            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3907
3908            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3909            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3910            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3911            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3912
3913        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3914
3915        if not value:
3916            return option
3917
3918        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3919
3920        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3921
3922    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3923        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3924        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3925            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3926            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3927            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3928        else:
3929            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3930            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3931            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3932
3933        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3934        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3935
3936        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3937        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3938
3939        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3940        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3941
3942        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3943        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3944
3945        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3946
3947    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3949        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3950
3951        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3952        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3953        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3954        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3955
3956        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3957        params = self.expressions(
3958            expression,
3959            key="params",
3960            sep=sep,
3961            new_line=True,
3962            skip_last=True,
3963            skip_first=True,
3964            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3965        )
3966
3967        if params:
3968            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3969                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3970            elif not self.pretty:
3971                params = f" {params}"
3972
3973        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3974
3975    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3976        return ""
3977
3978    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3979        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3980        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3981        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3982        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3983        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3984
3985        if filter_col or retention_period:
3986            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3987
3988        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3989
3990    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3991        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3992    ) -> str:
3993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3994        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3995        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3996        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3997
3998    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4000        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4001        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4002
4003    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4004        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4005
4006    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4008        expr = expression.expression
4009
4010        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4011            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4012            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4013        else:
4014            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4015
4016        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4017
4018    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4019        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4020            return self.sql(expression.this)
4021
4022        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4023
4024    def length_sql(self, expression: exp.Length) -> str:
4025        return self.func("LENGTH", expression.this)
4026
4027    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4028        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4029        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4030
4031        if lower and upper:
4032            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4033        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4034
4035    def strtodate_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToDate) -> str:
4036        return self.func("STR_TO_DATE", expression.this, expression.args.get("format"))
4037
4038    def strtotime_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToTime) -> str:
4039        return self.func(
4040            "STR_TO_TIME",
4041            expression.this,
4042            expression.args.get("format"),
4043            expression.args.get("zone"),
4044        )
4045
4046    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4047        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4048        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4049        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4050        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4051        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4052        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4053
4054        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4055
4056    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4057        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4058
4059        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4060        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4061            fill_pattern = "' '"
4062
4063        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)